Saeid Safiri
1,2,3* 
, Amin Daei Sorkhabi
4, Reza Aletaha
3, Sana Hamidi
1, Kimia Motlagh Asghari
1, Aila Sarkesh
1, Sina Janbaz Alamdary
1, Amir Ghaffari Jolfayi
5, Seyed Aria Nejadghaderi
6, Asra Fazlollahi
1, Reza Mohammadinasab
7, Mark J. M. Sullman
8,9, Nahid Karamzad
10,11, Fikrettin Sahin
12, Ali-Asghar Kolahi
13* 1 Neurosciences Research Center, Aging Research Institute, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
2 Clinical Research Development Unit, Imam Reza General Hospital, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
3 Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Department of Community Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
4 Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
5 Rajaie Cardiovascular Medical and Research Center, School of Medicine, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
6 HIV/STI Surveillance Research Center, and WHO Collaborating Center for HIV Surveillance, Institute for Futures Studies in Health Kerman University of Medical Sciences Kerman Iran
7 Department of History of Medicine, School of Traditional Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
8 Department of Life and Health Sciences, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus
9 Department of Social Sciences, University of Nicosia, Nicosia, Cyprus
10 Department of Persian Medicine, School of Traditional Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
11 Nutrition Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
12 Department of Genetics and Bioengineering, Faculty of Engineering, Yeditepe University, Istanbul, Turkey
13 Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
Objectives: To review the current literature on obesity risk factors, epidemiology, and trends, providing insights for effective prevention and intervention strategies.
Design: Review article.
Setting(s): Global.
Outcome Measures: A systematic search was performed using MEDLINE (via PubMed), Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar up to January 2024. Studies on obesity’s history, epidemiology, risk factors, health impacts, and preventive or therapeutic approaches were included. Both primary and secondary studies were considered, excluding those in languages other than English, in vitro studies, and animal studies. No restrictions were applied regarding publication date or article type.
Results: The overweight- and obesity-attributable burden of diseases has significantly increased, particularly among adults aged 60 and older, with the most severe effects observed in women aged≥75, highlighting a growing public health challenge and a markedly greater rate of increase in older adults compared to those under 60. The causes of obesity were found to be multifaceted, predominantly influenced by behavioral and environmental factors, with an imbalance between calorie intake and expenditure being the primary issue. The adverse health consequences of obesity have been well documented, with associations noted in various non-communicable diseases, including diabetes, cardiovascular diseases (CVDs), and musculoskeletal disorders.
Conclusions: Understanding obesity-comorbidity links is vital to identifying high-risk individuals and prioritizing interventions. Limited access to effective weight management treatments remains a key barrier to improving health outcomes for those affected by obesity.